The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London

Samuel Mark

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

| Peer-Reviewed

The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London

Samuel Mark

Published in International Journal of Archaeology (Volume 6, Issue 2)

Received: 24 November 2018 Accepted: 17 December 2018 Published: 17 January 2019

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

The combination of documentary evidence with skeletal analysis can reveal much about the prevalence of a condition from past times. Both types of evidence, however, have limitations. Using these data Cox published a study in 1996 of nearly 1,000 skeletons, dating from the 1700s to the 1850s, from Christ Church, Spitalfields in east London. Only two skeletons were reported to have lesions consistent with syphilis or 0.2% of this population, and a review of deaths caused by syphilis listed in bills of mortality for London gave a mortality rate of less than 0.5% for syphilis. Since both data sets are roughly consistent they appear to support Cox’s interpretation. Nevertheless, a restudy of William Leschallas’ cranium raised the first doubt to this low rate in this population. Furthermore, the Royal Commission on Venereal Disease stated in 1916 that the rate of congenital and acquired syphilis was not less than 10% of the population in cities. The aim of this study is to understand such discrepancies. This was done by re-examining Leschallas’ cranium and other skeletal data cited by Cox and Cox et al., as well as official documents and medical, legal, and religious texts to better estimate the prevalence of syphilis in 19th-century England. As a result, a review of these documents not only supports a prevalence of at least 10% for syphilis in early 20th-century London, but in the first half of the 19th century possibly over 50% of adult males believed they were infected with syphilis. Such a high perceived prevalence along with the social stigma of being infected with syphilis, and to a lesser extent cancers, led to the omission of syphilis from official documents. In regards to the lesions in Leschallas’ cranium diagnosed as trauma from gunshot wounds, all but one are consistent with syphilis, and possibly one lesion may be cancerous, allowing for the possibility that others in this skeletal population were also misdiagnosed, especially considering there was considerable post-mortem damage to many skeletons. Moreover, it has been estimated that only 1% to 20% of individuals suffering from syphilis will develop skeletal lesions, raising the possibility that syphilis was underestimated in this skeletal population. Thus, a better understanding of stigmas in past societies can be a valuable tool in evaluating the validity of documentary evidence and as an influence in estimating the prevalence of such a condition.

Published in	International Journal of Archaeology (Volume 6, Issue 2)
DOI	10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
Page(s)	67-80
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2019. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Cancer, Syphilis, Interpreting Gunshot Wounds in Cranium, Official Documents

References

[1]	M. Cox, Life and Death in Spitalfields 1700 to 1850, Council for British Archaeology, York, UK, 1996.
[2]	M. Cox, T. Molleson, and T. Waldron, “Preconception and perception: the lessons of a 19th century suicide,” Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 573-581, 1990 https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403 (90) 90037-6.
[3]	https://www.officialdata.org/1850-GBP-in-2018?amount=95000 [Conversion web page for inflation].
[4]	D. Lee, M. Nash, J. Turk, and G. Har-el, “Low-velocity gunshot wounds to the paranasal sinuses,” Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, vol. 116, no. 3, pp. 372-378, 1997. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0194-5998 (97) 70276-6.
[5]	G. Quatrehomme and M. İşcan, “Characteristics of gunshot wounds in the skull,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 568-76, 1999. DOI: 10.1520/JFS14511J.
[6]	J. Bates, Percussion Pistols and Revolvers: History, Performance and Practical Use, iUniverse, Inc., New York, 2005.
[7]	C. Neal, S. Ling, and J. Ecklund, “Management of ballistic trauma to the head,” in Ballistic Trauma, P. Mahoney, J. Ryan, A. Brooks, and C. Schwab, Eds, Springer, London, 2nd edition, 2005.
[8]	A. Jeffery, G. Rutty, C. Robinson, and B. Morgan, “Computed tomography of projectile injuries,” Clinical Radiology, vol. 63, no. 10, pp. 1160-1166, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2008.03.003.
[9]	Ö. Yalçin, T. Yildirim, O. Kizilkiliç et al., “CT and MRI findings in calvarial non-infectious lesions,” Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 68-74, 2007. PMID: 17562510.
[10]	C. E. Rawlings III and R. H. Wilkins, “Solitary eosinophilic granuloma of the skull, Neurosurgery, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 155–161, 1984. https://doi.org/10.1227/00006123-198408000-00001.
[11]	P. V. Kitsoulis, G. Paraskevas, A. Vrettakos, and A. Marini. “A case of eosinophilic granuloma of the skull in an adult man: a case report,” Cases Journal, vol. 2, no. 9144, pp. 1-5, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-1626-2-9144.
[12]	D. Ortner, Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains, Academic Press, London and San Diego, 2nd edition, 2003.
[13]	D. Wilner, Radiology of Bone Tumors and Allied Disorders, vol. 4, W. B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1982.
[14]	A. Altalhy, Y. Maghrabi, Z. Almansouri, and S. Baeesa, “Solitary skull metastasis as the first presentation of a metachronous primary lung cancer in a survivor from pancreatic cancer,” Case Reports in Oncological Medicine, vol. 2017, Article ID 5674749, pp. 1-8, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5674749.
[15]	N. Litofsky and A. Resnick, “The relationships between depression and brain tumors,” Journal of Neuro-Oncology, vol. 94, pp. 153-161, 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-009-9825-4.
[16]	The Law Journal: A Weekly Publication of Notes of Cases and Legal News, vol. 26, January 31, pp. 82-83, 1891, published as a yearly text by F. E. Streeten, London, 1892.
[17]	M. Higgs, A Visitor's Guide to Victorian England http://visitvictorianengland.blogspot.com/2013/11/in-suspicious-circumstances-victorian.html Last updated 18 Nov 2013.
[18]	R. T. Steinbock, Paleopathological Diagnosis and Interpretation. Bone Diseases in Ancient Human Populations, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Ill., 1976.
[19]	M. MacDonald, “The medicalization of suicide in England: laymen, physicians, and cultural change, 1500-1870,” The Milbank Quarterly, vol. 67, suppl. 1, pp. 69-91, 1989.
[20]	J. Jortin, Sermons on different subjects, vol. 5, Benjamin White and Son, London, 1787.
[21]	J. H. Blunt, The Book of Church Law: Being an Exposition of the Legal Rights and Duties of the Parochial Clergy and the Laity of the Church of England, Rivingtons: London, Oxford, & Cambridge, 1872.
[22]	J. Howard, “Practical Observations on the Natural History and Cure of the Venereal Disease, vol. 1, William Long, London, 1806.
[23]	P. Pichot and C. Pull, “Is there an involutional melancholia?,” Comprehensive Psychiatry, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 2-10, 1981. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X (81) 90048-1.
[24]	Great Britain, Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases, Royal Commission on Venereal Disease: Final report of the Commissioners, Published by his Majesty’s Stationary Office, London, 1916.
[25]	S. Szreter, “The prevalence of syphilis in England and Wales on the eve of the Great War: re-visiting the estimates of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases 1913–1916,” Social History of Medicine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 508–529, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/hkt123.
[26]	H. G. Wells, “The nature and etiology of cancer,” American Journal of Cancer, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1919-1968, 1931. DOI: 10.1158/ajc.1931.
[27]	J. Berneye, “Slander and Libel,” The American Law Review, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 593-613, 1872.
[28]	A. M. Royden, “Report of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases,” International Journal of Ethics, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 171-188, 1917.
[29]	Great Britain, House of Commons, “Report from select committee on the office of coroner together with the proceedings of the committee, minutes of the evidence and appendix,” Reports from Committees: Sixteen Volumes. Session 24 January - 28 August 1860, vol. 22, Ordered by The House of Commons, London, 1860.
[30]	P. Fyfe, Accident or Design: Writing the Victorian Metropolis, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2015.
[31]	M. Spongberg, Feminizing Venereal Disease: The Body of the Prostitute in Nineteenth-Century Medical Discourse, New York University Press, New York, 1997.
[32]	J. G. Wakley (ed.), “The Contagious Disease Acts,” The Lancet: A Journal of British and Foreign Medicine, Physiology, Surgery, Chemistry, Public Health, Criticism, and News, vol. 126, October 10, pp. 674-676, 1885. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736 (02) 28503-7.
[33]	J. Frith, “Syphilis - Its early history and treatment until penicillin, and the debate on its origins,” Journal of Military and Veterans’ Health, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 49-58, 2012.
[34]	F. Eagle, “Production of gonorrhoea and chancre from leucorrhoea,” The Lancet: A Journal of British and Foreign Medicine, Physiology, Surgery, Chemistry, Public Health, Criticism, and News, vol. 2, July 9, p. 491, 1836. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736 (02) 85742-7.
[35]	J. Townsend, A Treatise on the Wrongs Called Slander and Libel and on the Remedy by Civil Action for those Wrongs, Stevens & Haynes, London, 1868.
[36]	C. Pankhurst, The Great Scourge and How to End it, E. Pankhurst, London, 1911.
[37]	C. B. Godfrey, An Historical and Practical Treatise on the Venereal Disease; Dedicated To His Grace The Duke Of Queensbury. Illustrated With Some Remarkable Cases; Being The Result Of Fifteen Years Extensive Practice In This Metropolis: Together With Observations On A Late Publication Of Dr. Buchan’s, On This Complaint: In which His Principles are Candidly Examined, and Clearly Refuted. In this Work is Laid Down a Mode of Prevention, Which, If Universally Adopted, Will, in a Few Years, Annihilate this Inveterate Disease, H. D. Symonds, London, 1797?
[38]	Great Britain, Parliament, House of Commons, “Select Committee on the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1881,” Report from the Select Committee on the Contagious Diseases Acts: together with the proceedings of the Committee, minutes of evidence and appendix, Ordered by the House of Commons, London, 1881.
[39]	J. Howard, “Practical Observations on the Natural History and Cure of the Venereal Disease, vol. 2, William Long, London, 1806.
[40]	J. Boulton and J. Black, “‘Those, that die by reason of their madness’: dying insane in London, 1629–1830,” History of Psychiatry, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 27-39, 2012. doi: 10.1177/0957154X11428930.
[41]	J. Marshall, Royal College of Surgeons of England, Statistics of the British Empire: Mortality of the Metropolis: a Statistical View of the Number of Persons Reported to Have Died, of Each of More Than 100 Kinds of Disease, and Casualties, Within the Bills of Mortality, in Each of the Two Hundred and Four Years, 1629-1831, J. Haddon, London, 1837.
[42]	C. Lion, F. Escande, and J. C. Burdin, “Capnocytophaga canimorsus infections in human: Review of the literature and cases report,” European Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 12, pp. 521-533, 1996.
[43]	J. Angus, “Old and new bills of mortality; movement of the population; deaths and fatal diseases in London during the last fourteen years,” Journal of the Statistical Society of London, vol. 17, pp. 117-142, 1854.

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Samuel Mark. (2019). The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. International Journal of Archaeology, 6(2), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Samuel Mark. The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. Int. J. Archaeol. 2019, 6(2), 67-80. doi: 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Samuel Mark. The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. Int J Archaeol. 2019;6(2):67-80. doi: 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12,
  author = {Samuel Mark},
  title = {The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London},
  journal = {International Journal of Archaeology},
  volume = {6},
  number = {2},
  pages = {67-80},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ija.20180602.12},
  abstract = {The combination of documentary evidence with skeletal analysis can reveal much about the prevalence of a condition from past times. Both types of evidence, however, have limitations. Using these data Cox published a study in 1996 of nearly 1,000 skeletons, dating from the 1700s to the 1850s, from Christ Church, Spitalfields in east London. Only two skeletons were reported to have lesions consistent with syphilis or 0.2% of this population, and a review of deaths caused by syphilis listed in bills of mortality for London gave a mortality rate of less than 0.5% for syphilis. Since both data sets are roughly consistent they appear to support Cox’s interpretation. Nevertheless, a restudy of William Leschallas’ cranium raised the first doubt to this low rate in this population. Furthermore, the Royal Commission on Venereal Disease stated in 1916 that the rate of congenital and acquired syphilis was not less than 10% of the population in cities. The aim of this study is to understand such discrepancies. This was done by re-examining Leschallas’ cranium and other skeletal data cited by Cox and Cox et al., as well as official documents and medical, legal, and religious texts to better estimate the prevalence of syphilis in 19th-century England. As a result, a review of these documents not only supports a prevalence of at least 10% for syphilis in early 20th-century London, but in the first half of the 19th century possibly over 50% of adult males believed they were infected with syphilis. Such a high perceived prevalence along with the social stigma of being infected with syphilis, and to a lesser extent cancers, led to the omission of syphilis from official documents. In regards to the lesions in Leschallas’ cranium diagnosed as trauma from gunshot wounds, all but one are consistent with syphilis, and possibly one lesion may be cancerous, allowing for the possibility that others in this skeletal population were also misdiagnosed, especially considering there was considerable post-mortem damage to many skeletons. Moreover, it has been estimated that only 1% to 20% of individuals suffering from syphilis will develop skeletal lesions, raising the possibility that syphilis was underestimated in this skeletal population. Thus, a better understanding of stigmas in past societies can be a valuable tool in evaluating the validity of documentary evidence and as an influence in estimating the prevalence of such a condition.},
 year = {2019}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London
AU  - Samuel Mark
Y1  - 2019/01/17
PY  - 2019
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
T2  - International Journal of Archaeology
JF  - International Journal of Archaeology
JO  - International Journal of Archaeology
SP  - 67
EP  - 80
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-7595
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
AB  - The combination of documentary evidence with skeletal analysis can reveal much about the prevalence of a condition from past times. Both types of evidence, however, have limitations. Using these data Cox published a study in 1996 of nearly 1,000 skeletons, dating from the 1700s to the 1850s, from Christ Church, Spitalfields in east London. Only two skeletons were reported to have lesions consistent with syphilis or 0.2% of this population, and a review of deaths caused by syphilis listed in bills of mortality for London gave a mortality rate of less than 0.5% for syphilis. Since both data sets are roughly consistent they appear to support Cox’s interpretation. Nevertheless, a restudy of William Leschallas’ cranium raised the first doubt to this low rate in this population. Furthermore, the Royal Commission on Venereal Disease stated in 1916 that the rate of congenital and acquired syphilis was not less than 10% of the population in cities. The aim of this study is to understand such discrepancies. This was done by re-examining Leschallas’ cranium and other skeletal data cited by Cox and Cox et al., as well as official documents and medical, legal, and religious texts to better estimate the prevalence of syphilis in 19th-century England. As a result, a review of these documents not only supports a prevalence of at least 10% for syphilis in early 20th-century London, but in the first half of the 19th century possibly over 50% of adult males believed they were infected with syphilis. Such a high perceived prevalence along with the social stigma of being infected with syphilis, and to a lesser extent cancers, led to the omission of syphilis from official documents. In regards to the lesions in Leschallas’ cranium diagnosed as trauma from gunshot wounds, all but one are consistent with syphilis, and possibly one lesion may be cancerous, allowing for the possibility that others in this skeletal population were also misdiagnosed, especially considering there was considerable post-mortem damage to many skeletons. Moreover, it has been estimated that only 1% to 20% of individuals suffering from syphilis will develop skeletal lesions, raising the possibility that syphilis was underestimated in this skeletal population. Thus, a better understanding of stigmas in past societies can be a valuable tool in evaluating the validity of documentary evidence and as an influence in estimating the prevalence of such a condition.
VL  - 6
IS  - 2
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Samuel Mark

Department of Liberal Studies, Texas A&M University Galveston Campus, Galveston, USA

Download PDF

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Samuel Mark. (2019). The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. International Journal of Archaeology, 6(2), 67-80. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Samuel Mark. The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. Int. J. Archaeol. 2019, 6(2), 67-80. doi: 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Samuel Mark. The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London. Int J Archaeol. 2019;6(2):67-80. doi: 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12,
  author = {Samuel Mark},
  title = {The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London},
  journal = {International Journal of Archaeology},
  volume = {6},
  number = {2},
  pages = {67-80},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ija.20180602.12},
  abstract = {The combination of documentary evidence with skeletal analysis can reveal much about the prevalence of a condition from past times. Both types of evidence, however, have limitations. Using these data Cox published a study in 1996 of nearly 1,000 skeletons, dating from the 1700s to the 1850s, from Christ Church, Spitalfields in east London. Only two skeletons were reported to have lesions consistent with syphilis or 0.2% of this population, and a review of deaths caused by syphilis listed in bills of mortality for London gave a mortality rate of less than 0.5% for syphilis. Since both data sets are roughly consistent they appear to support Cox’s interpretation. Nevertheless, a restudy of William Leschallas’ cranium raised the first doubt to this low rate in this population. Furthermore, the Royal Commission on Venereal Disease stated in 1916 that the rate of congenital and acquired syphilis was not less than 10% of the population in cities. The aim of this study is to understand such discrepancies. This was done by re-examining Leschallas’ cranium and other skeletal data cited by Cox and Cox et al., as well as official documents and medical, legal, and religious texts to better estimate the prevalence of syphilis in 19th-century England. As a result, a review of these documents not only supports a prevalence of at least 10% for syphilis in early 20th-century London, but in the first half of the 19th century possibly over 50% of adult males believed they were infected with syphilis. Such a high perceived prevalence along with the social stigma of being infected with syphilis, and to a lesser extent cancers, led to the omission of syphilis from official documents. In regards to the lesions in Leschallas’ cranium diagnosed as trauma from gunshot wounds, all but one are consistent with syphilis, and possibly one lesion may be cancerous, allowing for the possibility that others in this skeletal population were also misdiagnosed, especially considering there was considerable post-mortem damage to many skeletons. Moreover, it has been estimated that only 1% to 20% of individuals suffering from syphilis will develop skeletal lesions, raising the possibility that syphilis was underestimated in this skeletal population. Thus, a better understanding of stigmas in past societies can be a valuable tool in evaluating the validity of documentary evidence and as an influence in estimating the prevalence of such a condition.},
 year = {2019}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - The Death of William Leschallas, Illustrating Drawbacks to Official Documents and Skeletal Data to Estimate Prevalence for Syphilis or Cancer in 19th Century London
AU  - Samuel Mark
Y1  - 2019/01/17
PY  - 2019
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
T2  - International Journal of Archaeology
JF  - International Journal of Archaeology
JO  - International Journal of Archaeology
SP  - 67
EP  - 80
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-7595
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ija.20180602.12
AB  - The combination of documentary evidence with skeletal analysis can reveal much about the prevalence of a condition from past times. Both types of evidence, however, have limitations. Using these data Cox published a study in 1996 of nearly 1,000 skeletons, dating from the 1700s to the 1850s, from Christ Church, Spitalfields in east London. Only two skeletons were reported to have lesions consistent with syphilis or 0.2% of this population, and a review of deaths caused by syphilis listed in bills of mortality for London gave a mortality rate of less than 0.5% for syphilis. Since both data sets are roughly consistent they appear to support Cox’s interpretation. Nevertheless, a restudy of William Leschallas’ cranium raised the first doubt to this low rate in this population. Furthermore, the Royal Commission on Venereal Disease stated in 1916 that the rate of congenital and acquired syphilis was not less than 10% of the population in cities. The aim of this study is to understand such discrepancies. This was done by re-examining Leschallas’ cranium and other skeletal data cited by Cox and Cox et al., as well as official documents and medical, legal, and religious texts to better estimate the prevalence of syphilis in 19th-century England. As a result, a review of these documents not only supports a prevalence of at least 10% for syphilis in early 20th-century London, but in the first half of the 19th century possibly over 50% of adult males believed they were infected with syphilis. Such a high perceived prevalence along with the social stigma of being infected with syphilis, and to a lesser extent cancers, led to the omission of syphilis from official documents. In regards to the lesions in Leschallas’ cranium diagnosed as trauma from gunshot wounds, all but one are consistent with syphilis, and possibly one lesion may be cancerous, allowing for the possibility that others in this skeletal population were also misdiagnosed, especially considering there was considerable post-mortem damage to many skeletons. Moreover, it has been estimated that only 1% to 20% of individuals suffering from syphilis will develop skeletal lesions, raising the possibility that syphilis was underestimated in this skeletal population. Thus, a better understanding of stigmas in past societies can be a valuable tool in evaluating the validity of documentary evidence and as an influence in estimating the prevalence of such a condition.
VL  - 6
IS  - 2
ER  -

Copy | Download